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Yungay Avalance

Written By Wednesday, April 6, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Including Glacier 511

1970 Huascarán debris avalanche
Yungay viejo1980.jpg

Yungay Viejo (onetime Yungay) in 1980, x years after the disaster
Date May 31, 1970 (1970-05-31)
Location Yungay, Yungay Province, Áncash Region, Peru
Type Debris avalanche/mudflow
Cause Ancash earthquake
Deaths 30,000[1]
Missing Unknown
Property damage Nearly of Yungay, Ranrahirca and several smaller villages destroyed

The 1970 Huascarán debris avalanche occurred on May 31, 1970, when a debris avalanche and mudflow triggered by the Ancash earthquake destroyed the Peruvian town of Yungay and x nearby villages, leaving up to xxx,000 people dead.[one] Information technology is the deadliest avalanche or glacier-related disaster in history,[2] [3] : xvi and the third or 4th about mortiferous landslide-related disaster of the 20th century, after the Haiyuan landslides (China), the Armero tragedy (Colombia) and by some estimates the Khait landslide (Tajikistan).[iv]

The north summit of Huascarán from which the avalanche originated had been considered unstable since 1962, when a smaller collapse wiped out several villages of the Callejón de Huaylas valley near Yungay. However, the provincial regime made efforts to preclude the news from spreading and urged people not to panic. The 1970 earthquake destabilized a glacier and snowmass which surged quickly downhill, becoming a mudflow as it accumulated large volumes of loose clay, rock and surface h2o. The death cost was made worse due to the earthquake having occurred on a Sunday, every bit thousands more people had congregated in Yungay for market when the mudflow struck and leveled the city. The slide then entered the Río Santa and acquired extensive harm as information technology flowed all the way downstream to the Pacific Bounding main, a distance of 100 miles (160 km), mostly through a narrow coulee.

Following the disaster, the Peruvian government conducted relief efforts and planned to move the provincial capital from Yungay to a safer location at Tingua. Survivors resisted the resettlement proposal and thousands stayed in a camp only n of the destroyed city known as "Yungay Norte", which would eventually become the present-day town of Yungay. The regime has forbidden redevelopment or excavation of the original town site, where a memorial has been established to commemorate the expressionless. Although nigh of Yungay was completely leveled by the earthquake and mudflow, some remnants, including the ruined cathedral and cemetery, tin can still be seen in the area.

Although Yungay was located outside of the direct avalanche path, the slide was so large that information technology overwhelmed the natural geographic barriers protecting the town, whose location had previously been considered safe. The United States Geological Survey stated that "conceivably, such an event may not occur again for thousands of years."[i] : 26

Groundwork [edit]

Geography and geology [edit]

Due to its rugged terrain, loftier tiptop and location in an active seismic zone, the Callejón de Huaylas, or upper Río Santa valley has historically been vulnerable to large landslides, mudslides and avalanches. Huascáran, the highest superlative of the Peruvian Andes, rises to an tiptop of half dozen,768 m (22,205 ft) to the east of the valley. Río Llanguanuco, a tributary of Río Santa, drains a ravine on the northwest flank of Huascáran and cuts a steep southwesterly path to join the larger river, forming an alluvial fan in a wide valley about its mouth. Due to the fertile soils and availability of surface water, the expanse had been farmed for hundreds of years and was home to many modest villages. The original site of Yungay boondocks was an elevated expanse northeast of the Río Santa and north-westward of the Río Llanguanuco; information technology was outside of the Llanguanuco valley, with a low ridge (Cerro de Aira)[5] separating the two.

View of Nevado Huascarán from Yungay

Debris-period deposits of Holocene origin make up the Río Llanganuco alluvial fan and underlie the Río Santa bed for depths of hundreds of metres in places, indicating that such flows have occurred hither regularly for thousands of years.[ane] Geologic prove indicates that Yungay itself was "probably built on a menses or avalanche deposit."[half-dozen] The name of nearby Ranrahirca hamlet means "pile of thrown stones" in Quechua, suggesting that debris avalanches have been observed in the valley since ancient times.[7] These destructive flows of snowfall, ice, mud and rock are locally termed huaycos.[8] : 426

The northwest side of Huascarán has been chosen "one of the nigh unstable ice-covered areas in the Cordillera Blanca".[i] Among the many glaciers and permanent icefields on Huascarán is "Glacier511" located beneath the nearly vertical face up of Huascarán's north peak. The glacier fills the head of the very steep Quebrada Armapampa ravine, which eventually flows into Río Llanguanuco.[3] Beneath the snout of Glacier511 the terrain slopes downwardly at an boilerplate pitch of 23degrees (in some places exceeding seventydegrees), with a total vertical drop of 3,000 1000 (9,800 ft) earlier reaching the more gently sloped valleys below, creating ideal conditions for any large falling mass of rock to move unobstructed at high speed.[i]

Yungay before the disaster [edit]

In the belatedly 1960s, Yungay'southward permanent population was effectually four,000[9] or five,000,[10] which swelled profoundly on market and church days when thousands of visitors arrived from the surrounding villages.[nine] With the notable exception of the massive stone cathedral at the center of town, the metropolis consisted predominantly of 2 or three-story adobe and wood structures with heavy tile roofs, dating from the Spanish colonial period.[5] This delicate housing stock, typical of structures elsewhere in the Río Santa valley, was highly vulnerable to seismic action.[5] Other prominent features of Yungay included the cardinal Plaza de Armas surrounded by palm trees, which hosted events including the fiesta of Santo Domingo, and the elevated cemetery, which was actually built on top of a pre-Inca burying mound which may be equally old as 10,000 years.[11]

In the years leading up to 1970, Yungay – sometimes nicknamed "Pearl of the Huaylas Corridor"[12] – had become one of the most popular tourist destinations in Peru due to its picturesque location, architecture, and proximity to Huascarán and the Llanganuco lakes.[3] : 141

Yungay had been struck by disaster earlier; it was reported to be "nearly completely wiped out by an barrage" in 1872,[12] implying an avalanche at least equal to the magnitude of the 1970 effect.

1962 Ranrahirca avalanche [edit]

On Januaryx, 1962, part of Glacier 511 collapsed, causing 10millionm3 (13millionyd3) of stone, water ice and snow to crash down into Río Llanganuco. The slide destroyed nine villages and killed more than than four,000 people.[13] The unabridged boondocks of Ranrahirca, which was congenital on the Llanguanuco fan at the edge of the slide path, was flattened; some ii,900 people died in Ranrahirca alone.[7] : 121 Residents had little to no warning, every bit less than four minutes passed from the beginning of the slide earlier the flow reached the Río Santa.[7] Everything in the wave'southward path was destroyed, and corpses were washed equally far as the Pacific Ocean, 100 km (62 mi) downstream.[14]

This slide was not caused by an earthquake, nor were vii other large avalanches and droppings flows that occurred in the Santa Valley betwixt 1940 and 1970.[6] Rather, the glacier had fractured under its own weight. Due to the steep gradient of the underlying rock and lubrication by glacial melt, there was nothing to finish the ice from sliding downhill at high speed.[7] In the wake of this and other glacier-related disasters in the Ancash region, notably glacial lake burst floods that destroyed parts of Huaraz in the preceding two decades, the national government had tried to push button forward "adventure zoning" which would limit development in alluvion and avalanche zones. Still, these efforts were largely unsuccessful due to resistance past locals, who feared the economic and cultural disruption that would issue from forced relocation.[seven]

Post-1962 observations and controversy [edit]

In September 1962, the Massachusetts Plant of Technology sponsored a glaciological trek to assess the aftermath of the Ranrahirca slide. American climbers David Bernays and Charles Sawyer observed, in the aftermath of this slide, "a massive vertical slab of rock being undermined by Glacier511"[fifteen] posing the threat of a much larger collapse. The overhanging cliff was every bit much as i,000 yard (3,300 ft) high in places and the rock was described equally beingness "pervasively fractured."[5] Although the risk to Yungay was remote, the town could be threatened if a "sufficiently large avalanche" were to spill over the ridge to its east.[iii] : 150 The Americans' findings were reported on September27, 1962, in the El Expreso newspaper, under the headline "Dantesque Barrage Threatens Yungay."

"The mountaineers and scientists... [provided] a dramatic revelation that a gigantic barrage three times larger than that of Ranrahirca threatens to dislodge, putting in danger Yungay, Mancos and the proposed site where they programme to rebuild the devastated Ranrahirca... Information technology is hoped that authorities take preventative measures to save the lives of the flourishing Callejón de Huaylas populations."[3] : 149

Local authorities ordered this information to be retracted, and discouraged citizens from speaking almost the threat,[15] in social club to forestall panic: "Anyone who spoke in favor of the Americans' conclusions would be charged nether the Penal Code for disrupting public tranquility."[3] : 149 The managing director of the regional Lakes Commission, Miguel Eliás Pizarro, was asked to "provide an expert assay."[3] Pizarro "dismissed the American mountaineers' statements every bit outlandish, hurried and uninformed" and stated that Yungay was in no danger, being well out of the path of the 1962 slide.[iii] : 150 Bernays and Sawyer were reportedly threatened with arrest, and they soon fled the country.[15] [iii] : 150 Prior to that, Bernays had attended a public meeting in Huaraz where he chosen the Expreso coverage "exaggerated", though he did non deny the possibility that a large enough avalanche could touch Yungay.[three] : 150

This aforementioned glacier would exist the origin of the much larger collapse that destroyed Yungay eight years later.[16]

Earthquake and landslide [edit]

Aeriform view of the harm, showing the origin point on Huascarán and debris fans in the valley below

At xv:23 on Sunday, May31, 1970, the Ancash convulsion (besides known as the Great Peruvian convulsion) struck off the coast of Peru with a moment magnitude of vii.9. The shaking dislodged a slab of rock well-nigh 800 m (2,600 ft) wide from the western face up of Huascarán's north acme, at an peak of roughly 5,600 to 6,200 chiliad (18,400 to twenty,300 ft).[17] : 83 The rockfall occurred almost immediately after the shaking began, with witnesses comparing the sound to a gunshot or explosion.[5] : 279 The fall triggered an "enormous dark cloud of dust" which apace blocked the view from below.[v]

The rock barbarous some 600 g (2,000 ft) vertically[5] : 302 before landing on Glacier511 and sliding nearly 3 km (1.9 mi) down its surface, accumulating a large volume of firn snow as it went.[vi] The initial ice-stone avalanche volume was at to the lowest degree 25milliongrand3 (33millionyd3), and grew speedily in size as it brutal down the steep Llanganuco valley, picking up large volumes of dirt, loose glacial moraine, h2o and uprooted trees. With area soils saturated near the end of the rainy season,[18] and the large corporeality of snow and ice scraped off the glacier surface,[5] the avalanche apace liquefied into a fluid, fast-moving mudflow.[one]

The maximum volume of mudflow was as much as l-100 one thousand thousandyardiii (130megydthree),[19] and information technology reached speeds of up to 435 km/h (270 mph).[1] Some debris projectiles launched ahead of the principal flow may take exceeded 1,100 km/h (680 mph).[v] According to a U.South. Geological Survey written report published the same twelvemonth, the mudflow may accept achieved its unusually high speed due to "air-cushioned period", a mixture of snow, ice and entrapped air that allowed the majority of the material to substantially float over the footing.[1] The initial acceleration of the mass down the low-friction glacial surface was also a major factor, catapulting the material downhill at a much higher speed than if information technology had slid over bare rock or earth.[17] : 84

Destruction of Yungay [edit]

In Yungay, people rushed outside after the earthquake hit; many flocked to churches to shelter and pray. Most buildings in the urban center were damaged or destroyed by the earthquake, though initial casualties were low compared to the mudflow that followed.[five] The mudflow struck Yungay, xiii km (viii.1 mi) from the avalanche origin, an estimated 1 infinitesimal, 42seconds after the earthquake began.[xx] : 163 Although the nearly 200 m (660 ft) hill of Cerro de Aira stood between Yungay and the Llanganuco valley, the mudflow struck the ridge at a high enough speed – some 170 km/h (110 mph) [5] – that part of it leapt over the crest, outset destroying the villages of Shillkop, Aira and Ongo before descending upon Yungay.[five]

A big air nail preceded the debris catamenia, followed past a rain of boulders and large debris before the principal, semi-liquid wave struck. The wind blast was "strong plenty to throw people to the basis and in some places to topple copse."[5] Behemothic rocks "bounced and rolled" towards Yungay, leaving huge craters in the basis and flattening buildings that had not been already destroyed past the earthquake. The mudflow itself was described by survivors as "rolling", "wavelike" or "a rolling confused move."[5] Due to the speed of the flow, at that place was no time to evacuate. Practically every man-fabricated structure in Yungay except a few on the outskirts were destroyed, and thousands of people were killed instantly.[1] Survivor Mateo Casaverde described the scene:

"We heard a deep noise, unlike from the earthquake, but not and then much and then. It was coming from Huascarán and we saw between the mountain and Yungay a giant cloud of grit. The quake had caused an avalanche. Part of Huascarán was falling... You could come across a giant moving ridge of gray mud, almost 60 metres (200 ft) loftier, about to hit the left hand side of the city. This wave was certainly not grit... The heaven went night. Nosotros looked effectually. Yungay and its many thousands of inhabitants had disappeared."[21] [22]

Furnishings elsewhere [edit]

The bulk of the mudflow headed direct down Río Llanganuco, which formed the virtually directly path for the slide. The villages of Incayoc and Huashau, closest to the base of operations of Huascarán, were struck first.[v] A group of Czechoslovak climbers on their way upwards the mountain were killed nearby.[20] The entire Llanganuco delta expanse was destroyed, including the rebuilt boondocks of Ranrahirca, where an estimated ane,800 people were killed. "An unknown, but probably big, number of additional casualties were sustained elsewhere in the extensive area covered by the debris lobe."[1] As had occurred in Yungay, huge boulders were thrown hundreds of metres across the valley, destroying everything in their path.[v] The largest unmarried boulder plant in the slide, near the site of Ranrahirca, weighed 14,000 tonnes (31,000,000 lb).[i]

The slide damned the Río Santa, causing it to back up in a 2 km (1.2 mi) long lake. Material traveled as much as 83 m (272 ft) vertically up the opposite bank, destroying part of Matacoto village, earlier reversing and falling back into the river with a thunderous roar.[five] : 297 Survivors described the move as "like a moving ridge on the shore."[five] : 297 Within xxx minutes the landslide dam overflowed, and debris and mud flowed downstream for some 100 km (62 mi) at speeds up to 35 km/h (22 mph), causing damage all along the river banks.[1] [23]

In Caraz, eleven km (half-dozen.8 mi) downstream of Yungay, the airport and much of the surrounding farmland were flooded, and a highway bridge at Choquechaca was destroyed. The dam of the Cañon del Pato hydroelectric plant was also destroyed, although the ability station itself was unharmed.[1] : 12 At Huallanca below Cañon del Pato, the river reportedly dried upward for an hour after the convulsion, due to its temporary blockage upstream, and then abruptly rose 20 m (66 ft) from its bed. Afterwards the water receded "dozens of corpses, and vehicles and other manmade materials" were found deposited in the flood zone.[1] : thirteen Big sections of railroad and highway between Huallanca and Chimbote were either buried or done away, cutting off access to the region.[ane] : 13

It reportedly took eight or ix days for the river to cutting completely through the droppings dam and restore its original class.[5]

Casualties and losses [edit]

Upper level of the Yungay cemetery and Cristo Redentor statue; many people sought refuge hither when the mudflow hit town

The number of deaths from the 1970 avalanche has been difficult to quantify; due to the sheer size of the devastated area and the depth to which the towns were buried, thousands of missing bodies were never found. Furthermore, the casualties in Yungay were greatly increased due to the disaster having occurred on Sun – market day – when many people had come up in from the countryside.[5] : 287 Most estimates range betwixt a total of xv,000[24] and eighteen,000[1] killed in Yungay and the surrounding villages, although some sources cite a death price equally loftier as 22,000[11] or 25,000.

But near 400 people survived in Yungay proper, 300 of which were children, who had been attending a circus in the local stadium; reportedly a clown led them to higher ground only in fourth dimension earlier the mudflow struck. Ninety-two people as well survived by climbing an artificial colina at the town cemetery.[21] These were the only structures in town that remained intact, along with "a statue of Jesus Christ with his arms outstretched, continuing tall above the rubble"[25] which remains today as a memorial to the dead. A photo of four palm trees that once surrounded Yungay'due south master plaza, half cached in the mudflow merely even so standing, became symbolic of the disaster.[21] [26]

The debris covered a full area of 1,500 hectares (3,700 acres) and reached depths of upward to 20 chiliad (66 ft) in the Ranrahirca area; in places the flow spread as wide as iv.three km (ii.seven mi).[one] Yungay town was buried under virtually 5 metres (16 ft) of debris.[5] : 297 Much of the mud that initially cached the urban center drained away within a few days of the disaster, leaving a plain of larger rocks which remains today in much the same state.[5]

Aftermath [edit]

Relief efforts [edit]

Ruins of the Yungay cathedral

Due to Yungay'southward cultural and economic importance as the capital of Yungay Province, many survivors not just from Yungay but the surrounding villages resisted authorities efforts to resettle them elsewhere. Within a year of the disaster, some 2,000 survivors had clustered in the refugee army camp known as "Yungay Norte", only a few hundred metres north of the destroyed city. Although this location was much safer from landslides than old Yungay, information technology was geographically constrained – "aid personnel speculated that if the upper-case letter of the province were relocated in that location, it would shortly outgrow the safe surface area and spill over into unsafe zones."[27] : 110

The national government created the Comisión de Reconstrucción y Rehabilitación de la Zona Afectada (CRYRZA) agency to oversee help and reconstruction efforts in the areas affected by the Ancash earthquake. Before long later the disaster, government supervised repair of Yungay's irrigation systems which had been destroyed by the mudflow. Even so, the year'southward farm production still fell far short of normal.[27] : 109 Relief efforts were hindered by the damage to roads and bridges in rough terrain; "information technology took ii or three days for supplies to accomplish the upper Santa valley by road from Lima airport."[28] : 426

There was controversy over the distribution of aid, equally urban dwellers felt they were not receiving enough compared to indigenous peasants. President Juan Velasco saw the disaster as "a unique opportunity" to deport out his populist calendar, which aimed to erase socioeconomic divides in rural provinces such as Yungay.[nine] [24] "For the urban elite accepted to advantages over the indigenous population, equality was an insidious proposition."[24] Nonetheless for rural inhabitants, "it was a unique opportunity for social mobility in a frontier-similar scenario."[9] : 68

Reconstruction [edit]

Monument at Yungay Viejo and view of Huascarán

In November 1970, authorities appear plans to relocate the provincial capital itself to a place called Tingua, 15 km (9.3 mi) abroad.[24] This plan was poorly received, being far from the peasant farmers who depended on Yungay markets to sell their products and came to town for religious functions. Such an organisation would also exit the urban population without nearby sources of nutrient, goods and acquirement (from renting of farmland). "The Tingua site for the new capital would accept disrupted traditional social, economic and political patterns of interrelationships within the uppercase as well as between the rural and urban sectors of order. The Yungaino leaders were determined to avoid this disruptive project at all costs."[27] : 111

Ultimately, the national government began the construction of a permanent town at Yungay Norte, with significant international assistance. By 1975, Yungay Norte was simply known as "Yungay", with the site of the destroyed boondocks known every bit "Yungay Viejo". The new metropolis already had electricity, running water, clinics, schools, a church building, and permanent housing.[27] : 114–115 Past the early on 1990s Yungay had recovered to its pre-barrage population.[nine] The social limerick of the boondocks was completely changed, particularly since a large number of old Yungay'south survivors ended up moving to coastal cities, to be replaced by migrants from rural areas.[ix]

The Peruvian government declared the site of Yungay a national cemetery, Campo Santo. Any excavation to recover the dead or search for artifacts is prohibited. A memorial in the shape of the original cathedral facade, a stone altar, and a large memorial garden and obelisk has been built on the site.[20] [29] [30] Some survivors have erected headstones in the locations of their former homes.[twenty] Visitors tin can still encounter a portion of the cathedral wall, the burial mound and statue of Christ, the four palm trees in the primal plaza, and the wreckage of a coach.

In the wake of the disaster, the national authorities greatly increased funding for the mitigation and prevention of glacier-related hazards.[24] May 31 was besides declared National Disaster Pedagogy and Reflection Solar day, in honour of the earthquake and barrage victims.

Overview of the old townsite, showing the extent of the memorial

See also [edit]

  • List of avalanches
  • List of avalanches by decease cost
  • List of landslides

References [edit]

  1. ^ a b c d due east f g h i j k l one thousand n o p q r George E. Ericksen, George Plafker, Jaime Fernandez Concha (1970). "Preliminary Report on the Geologic Events Associated With the May 31, 1970, Peru Convulsion" (PDF). U.Due south. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2020-08-27 . {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors listing (link)
  2. ^ "Glacier Hazards". Academy of Oregon. Archived from the original on 2018-07-eleven. Retrieved 2018-x-24 .
  3. ^ a b c d east f chiliad h i j Carey, Mark (2010). In the Shadow of Melting Glaciers: Climate Change and Andean Lodge. Oxford Academy Press. ISBN978-0-19539-607-2.
  4. ^ "Landslide Hazards". U.Southward. Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 2018-01-29. Retrieved 2018-10-24 .
  5. ^ a b c d e f yard h i j k l chiliad northward o p q r s t u v Voight, Barry; et al. (2012). Natural Phenomena. Elsevier. ISBN978-0-44459-642-0.
  6. ^ a b c Progress on Seismic Zonation in the San Francisco Bay Region. Section of the Interior, Geological Survey. 1979.
  7. ^ a b c d east Carey, Mark (2010). In the Shadow of Melting Glaciers: Climatic change and Andean Society. Oxford Academy Press. ISBN978-0-19977-984-0.
  8. ^ Zschau, Jochen (2003). Early Alarm Systems for Natural Disaster Reduction. Springer Science & Business organisation Media. ISBN3-54067-962-6.
  9. ^ a b c d due east f Anna Lisa Peterson, Manuel A. Vásquez, Philip J. Williams. Christianity, Social Change, and Globalization in the Americas. Rutgers Academy Press. ISBN3-54042-851-8. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Haller, Andreas (2010): Yungay: contempo tendencies and spatial perceptions in an Andean risk zone. In Espacio y Desarrollo 22, pp. 65–75 ISSN 1016-9148
  11. ^ a b Heriberta Castaños, Cinna Lomnitz (2012). Convulsion Disasters in Latin America: A Holistic Approach. Springer Science & Business organisation Media. ISBN978-9-40072-809-vii.
  12. ^ a b Jenkins, Dilwyn (2003). Peru. Rough Guides. ISBN1-84353-074-0.
  13. ^ "Ice avalanches of the Nevados Huascarán in Peru". GRID-Arendal. Retrieved 2020-08-27 .
  14. ^ "On this day: 1962: Thousands killed in Peru landslide". BBC . Retrieved 2018-x-24 .
  15. ^ a b c "Political landslide". NewScientist. Retrieved 2020-08-27 .
  16. ^ "Avalanche kills thousands in Peru". History.com. Retrieved 2018-ten-24 .
  17. ^ a b Theodor H. Erismann, Gerhard Abele (2013). Dynamics of Rockslides and Rockfalls. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN978-3-66204-639-5.
  18. ^ "Landslides: Example Examples/Socio-‐political Effects/Preparedness" (PDF). University of Idaho. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-07-eleven. Retrieved 2020-08-27 .
  19. ^ "Stone and snow avalanche, Mount Huascaran, Republic of peru". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2018-02-07. Retrieved 2020-08-27 .
  20. ^ a b c d Axel Borsdorf, Christoph Stadel (2005). The Andes: A Geographical Portrait. Springer. ISBN3-31903-530-4.
  21. ^ a b c La Rue, Alan (2009-05-31). "Yungay 1970-2009: remembering the tragedy of The Earthquake". Peruvian Times.
  22. ^ "Yungay'due south disaster of 1970". The Huaraz Telegraph. 2012-06-19. Archived from the original on 2019-05-19.
  23. ^ Stephen Thou. Evans, Jerome V. DeGraff, ed. (2002). Catastrophic Landslides: Effects, Occurrence, and Mechanisms. Geological Club of America. ISBN0-81374-115-7.
  24. ^ a b c d e Michael R. Dove, ed. (2013). The Anthropology of Climatic change: An Historical Reader. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN978-1-11860-595-0.
  25. ^ Stephen J. Spignesi (2004). Catastrophe!: The 100 Greatest Disasters Of All Time. Citadel Press. ISBN0-80652-558-iv.
  26. ^ "Ancash Earthquake, Republic of peru, 1970". Science Source. Retrieved 2020-08-27 .
  27. ^ a b c d Oliver-Smith, Anthony (1977). "Traditional agriculture, central places, and postdisaster urban relocation in Peru1". American Ethnologist. iv: 102–116. doi:10.1525/ae.1977.iv.1.02a00060.
  28. ^ Jochen Zschau, Andreas Due north. Küppers (2013). Early on Alarm Systems for Natural Disaster Reduction. Springer Science & Business organisation Media. ISBN978-3-64255-903-7.
  29. ^ Anthony N. Penna, Jennifer S. Rivers (2013). Natural Disasters in a Global Surroundings. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN978-i-11832-754-8.
  30. ^ Joe Simpson (1996). Storms of Silence. The Mountaineers Books. ISBN0-89886-512-3.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970_Huascar%C3%A1n_debris_avalanche

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